Rebirth (Buddhism)

Lore & Background

Rebirth is referred to by various terms in Pali and Sanskrit, such as punarbhava (re-becoming) and jāti (birth), with no exact equivalent to the English 'reincarnation' or 'transmigration'. The entire process of beings being reborn repeatedly is called saṃsāra, or 'wandering about'. Some English-speaking Buddhists prefer 'rebirth' over 'reincarnation' because the latter implies a permanent soul, which Buddhism denies. The doctrine asserts that rebirth takes place in one of six realms—gods, demi-gods, humans, animals, ghosts, and hells—determined by karma: good or skillful karma leads to favorable realms, while bad or unskillful karma leads to unfavorable ones. While Nirvana is the ultimate goal, much traditional Buddhist practice focuses on gaining merit and merit transfer to achieve rebirth in good realms and avoid evil ones.

Reader's Guide

The rebirth doctrine has been a subject of scholarly study within Buddhism since ancient times, particularly in reconciling it with the anti-essentialist anātman (not-self) doctrine. Different Buddhist traditions have disagreed on what is reborn and how quickly rebirth occurs after death. Some traditions assert that consciousness (vijñana), though constantly changing, exists as a continuum and undergoes rebirth. Theravada holds that rebirth occurs immediately and that no 'thing' moves across lives, only a causal link exists. Tibetan Buddhism posits an interim existence (bardo) lasting up to 49 days, influencing funerary rituals. The now-defunct Pudgalavada tradition asserted an inexpressible personal entity (pudgala) that migrates between lives. The Buddha accepted the premises of rebirth from earlier Indian traditions but introduced innovations, including the concept of no soul (anattā) and the idea that all compounded things are subject to dissolution (anicca). The detailed conception of the connections between karma, rebirth, and causality is set out in the twelve links of dependent origination.

Did You Know?

• There is no word in Pali or Sanskrit that exactly corresponds to the English terms 'rebirth', 'reincarnation', or 'transmigration'.
• Some Buddhist traditions, like Theravada, assert that rebirth occurs immediately after death, while Tibetan Buddhism posits an interim existence (bardo) lasting up to 49 days.
• The Buddha claimed to have knowledge of his many past lives, recalling as far as ninety-one eons.
• The now-defunct Pudgalavada tradition asserted there was an inexpressible personal entity (pudgala) that migrates from one life to another.

Origins and Historical Spread

Buddhism emerged in the eastern Gangetic plain during the 5th century BCE as part of the śramaṇa movement, a broader tradition of wandering ascetics in South Asia. Founded on teachings attributed to the Buddha, a religious teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE, the tradition gradually expanded its reach across Asia through trade routes, particularly the Silk Road. What began as a localized spiritual movement in the region of modern Bihar and Uttar Pradesh eventually became a major force in Asian culture and spirituality. By the 20th century, Buddhist ideas had crossed into Western societies, marking a significant cultural shift. Historically, the faith held strong ground across the Indian subcontinent until the early 2nd millennium, when it declined there, though it also maintained a presence in Central Asian regions including Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

Core Teachings and Philosophical Framework

The Buddha's central teaching offered a path of cultivation aimed at awakening and liberation from dukkha, a concept often rendered as suffering or unsatisfactoriness. He proposed this path as a Middle Way, positioned between the extremes of severe asceticism and sensory indulgence, and also between the philosophical poles of eternalism and nihilism. Central to this framework is the teaching that dukkha arises in connection with attachment or clinging. The Buddha recommended meditation practices alongside ethical precepts grounded in the principle of non-harming. Widely observed teachings across Buddhist traditions include the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the doctrines of dependent origination, karma, and the three marks of existence. Additional commonly observed elements encompass the Triple Gem, the taking of monastic vows, and the cultivation of perfections known as pāramitā. The ultimate goal in this framework is nirvana, described as the blowing out or extinguishing of the passions that bind beings to the cycle of death and rebirth called saṃsāra.

Major Branches and Geographic Reach

Scholars generally recognize two major extant branches of Buddhism: Theravāda, meaning School of the Elders, and Mahāyāna, meaning Great Vehicle. The Mahāyāna branch is the largest, encompassing traditions such as Tiantai, Chan, Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren, and Tendai. It is predominantly practised in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Theravada, the second-largest branch, is followed mainly in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. The Theravada tradition emphasizes attaining nirvāṇa as a means of transcending the individual self and ending the cycle of death and rebirth, while Mahayana stresses the Bodhisattva ideal of working for the liberation of all sentient beings. Vajrayāna, described as the Indestructible Vehicle, incorporates esoteric tantric techniques and may be viewed as a separate branch or a tradition within Mahāyāna. Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayāna, is practised in Himalayan states, Mongolia, and Russian regions of Kalmykia and Tuva, while Japanese Shingon also preserves this tantric tradition as it was transmitted to China.

The Buddha's Life and Historical Context

Details of the Buddha's life appear in numerous Early Buddhist Texts, yet these accounts remain inconsistent, and his precise dates are uncertain, with the 5th century BCE being the best scholarly estimate. Early texts give his family name as Gautama, Pali Gotama, and some present Siddhartha as his surname. He was born in Lumbini, in present-day Nepal, and grew up in Kapilavastu, a town in the Ganges Plain near the modern Nepal-India border. Hagiographic legends describe his father as a king named Suddhodana and his mother as Queen Maya, though scholars like Richard Gombrich consider this dubious, suggesting instead that he was born into the Shakya community, governed by a small oligarchy or republic-like council without formal ranks. Buddhist texts claim the Buddha described himself as a kshatriya, but Gombrich notes there is no proof his father even knew that term. Moved by the suffering of life and death and its endless repetition through rebirth, Gautama set out on a quest for liberation, first studying under meditation teachers Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Ramaputta before turning to severe asceticism.